Wednesday, July 31, 2019

The Golden Lily Chapter 2

I DIDN'T SLEEP THAT NIGHT. Part of it was simply the time change. My flight back to Palm Springs was scheduled for six in the morning – which was three in the morning in the time zone my body still thought it was in. Sleeping seemed pointless. And, of course, there was the teeny-tiny fact that it was kind of hard to relax after everything I'd witnessed over at the Alchemist bunker. If I wasn't envisioning Liam's freaky eyes, then I was replaying the constant warnings I'd heard about those who got too close to vampires. It didn't help the situation that I had an inbox full of messages from the gang in Palm Springs. Normally, I checked my e-mail automatically on my phone when I was out and about. Now, in my hotel room, staring at the various messages, I found myself filled with doubt. Were these truly professional? Were they too friendly? Did they blur the lines of Alchemist protocol? After seeing what had happened to Keith, it was more obvious than ever that it didn't take much to get in trouble with my organization. One message was from Jill, with a subject line reading: Angeline†¦ sigh. This wasn't a surprise to me, and I didn't bother reading it yet. Angeline Dawes, a dhampir recruited to be Jill's roommate and provide an extra layer of security, had had a little trouble fitting into Amberwood. She was always in trouble for something, and I knew whatever it was this time, there was nothing I could do about it right now. Another message was from Angeline herself. I also didn't read it. The subject was: READ THIS! SO FUNNY! Angeline had only recently discovered e-mail. She had not, so it seemed, discovered how to turn off the caps-lock key. She also had no discrimination when it came to forwarding jokes, financial scams, or virus warnings. And speaking of that last one†¦ we'd had to finally install child protection software on her laptop, in order to block her from certain websites and ads. That had come after she'd accidentally downloaded four viruses. It was the last e-mail in my inbox that gave me pause. It was from Adrian Ivashkov, the only person in our group who wasn't posing as a student at Amberwood Preparatory School. Adrian was a twenty-one-year-old Moroi, so it would have been kind of a stretch passing him off in high school. Adrian was along because he and Jill had a psychic bond that had been inadvertently created when he'd used his magic to save her life. All Moroi wielded some type of elemental magic, and his was spirit – a mysterious element tied to the mind and healing. The bond allowed Jill to see Adrian's thoughts and emotions, which was troubling to both of them. His staying near her helped them work out some of the bond's kinks. Also, Adrian had nothing better to do. His message's subject was: SEND HELP IMMEDIATELY. Unlike Angeline, Adrian knew the rules of capitalization and was simply going for dramatic effect. I also knew that if I had any doubts about which of my messages related to my job, this was hands-down the most nonprofessional one in the set. Adrian wasn't my responsibility. Yet, I clicked the message anyway. Day 24. Situation is growing worse. My captors continue to find new and horrific ways to torture me. When not working, Agent Scarlet spends her days examining fabric swatches for bridesmaid dresses and going on about how in love she is. This usually causes Agent Boring Borscht to regale us with stories of Russian weddings that are even more boring than his usual ones. My attempts at escape have been thwarted thus far. Also, I am out of cigarettes. Any assistance or tobacco products you can send will be greatly appreciated. – Prisoner 24601 I began smiling in spite of myself. Adrian sent me some kind of message like this nearly every day. This summer, we had learned that those who were forcibly turned Strigoi could be turned back with the use of spirit. It was still a tricky, complicated process†¦ made more so by the fact that there were so few spirit users. Even more recent events had suggested that those restored from being Strigoi could never be turned again. That had electrified Alchemists and Moroi alike. If there was some magical way to prevent Strigoi conversion, freaks like Liam would no longer be a problem. That was where Sonya Karp and Dimitri Belikov came in – or, as Adrian called them in his angst-filled letters, â€Å"Agent Scarlet† and â€Å"Agent Boring Borscht.† Sonya was a Moroi; Dimitri was a dhampir. Both had once been Strigoi and had been saved by spirit magic. The two of them had come to Palm Springs last month to work with Adrian in a sort of think tank to figure out what might protect against Strigoi turning. It was an extremely important task, one that could have huge ramifications if successful. Sonya and Dimitri were some of the hardest working people I knew – which didn't always mesh with Adrian's style. A lot of their work involved slow, painstaking experiments – many involving Eddie Castile, a dhampir who was also undercover at Amberwood. He was serving as the control subject since, unlike Dimitri, Eddie was a dhampir untouched by spirit or a Strigoi history. There wasn't much I could do to help Adrian with his frustration over his research group – and he knew it. He just liked playing up the drama and venting to me. Mindful of what was essential and nonessential in the Alchemist world, I was on the verge of deleting the message, but†¦ One thing made me hesitate. Adrian had signed his e-mail with a reference to Victor Hugo's Les Miserables. It was a book about the French Revolution that was so thick, it could easily double as a weapon. I had read it in both French and English. Considering Adrian had once gotten bored while reading a particularly long menu, I had a hard time imagining he'd read the Hugo book in any language. So how did he know the reference? It doesn't matter, Sydney, a stern Alchemist voice said inside my head. Delete it. It's irrelevant. Adrian's literary knowledge (or lack thereof) is no concern of yours. But I couldn't do it. I had to know. This was the kind of detail that would drive me crazy. I wrote back with a quick message: How do you know about 24601? I refuse to believe you read the book. You saw the musical, right? I hit send and received a response back from him almost immediately: SparkNotes. Typical. I laughed out loud and immediately felt guilty. I shouldn't have responded. This was my personal e-mail account, but if the Alchemists ever felt the need to investigate me, they'd have no qualms about accessing it. This kind of thing was damning, and I deleted the e-mail exchange – not that it mattered. No data was ever truly lost. By the time I landed in Palm Springs at seven the next morning, it was painfully obvious that I had surpassed my body's limits to subsist on caffeine. I was too exhausted. No amount of coffee would help anymore. I nearly fell asleep at the airport's curb, waiting for my ride. When it arrived, I didn't notice until I heard my name called. Dimitri Belikov jumped out of a blue rental car and strode toward me, grabbing hold of my suitcase before I could utter a word. A few nearby women stopped talking to stare at him admiringly. I got to my feet. â€Å"You don't have to do that,† I said, even though he was already loading my suitcase into the trunk. â€Å"Of course I do,† he said, his words lightly touched with a Russian accent. He gave me a small smile. â€Å"You looked like you were asleep.† â€Å"I should be so lucky,† I said, getting into the passenger side. Even if I'd been wide awake, I knew Dimitri would've taken my suitcase anyway. That's how he was, a lost remnant of chivalry in the modern world, ever-ready to help others. That was only one of the many striking things about Dimitri. His looks alone were certainly enough to make many halt in their tracks. He had dark brown hair pulled back into a short ponytail, with matching brown eyes that seemed mysterious and alluring. He was tall, too – about 67 – rivaling some Moroi. Dhampirs were indistinguishable from humans to me, so even I could admit that he scored pretty high on the attractiveness scale. There was also an energy around him that you couldn't help but be affected by. He was always on alert, always ready for the unexpected. I'd never seen his guard down. He was constantly ready to strike. He was dangerous, no question, and I was comforted that he was on our side. I always felt safe around him – and a little wary. â€Å"Thanks for the ride,† I added. â€Å"I could've called a taxi.† Even as I spoke, I knew my words were as useless as when I'd told him he didn't need to help me with my bag. â€Å"It's no problem,† he assured me, driving toward suburban Palm Springs. He wiped sweat off his brow and somehow made that look attractive. Even this early in the morning, the heat was beginning to build. â€Å"Sonya insisted. Besides, no experiments today.† I frowned at that. Those experiments and the amazing potential they represented to prevent the creation of more Strigoi were vastly important. Dimitri and Sonya knew that and were dedicated to the cause – especially on weekends, when Adrian and Eddie didn't have classes – which made this news so puzzling. My own work ethic had a hard time understanding why there'd be no research happening on a Sunday. â€Å"Adrian?† I guessed. Maybe he wasn't â€Å"in the mood† for research today. â€Å"Partially,† said Dimitri. â€Å"We're also missing our control subject. Eddie said he had some conflict and couldn't make it.† My frown deepened. â€Å"What conflict could Eddie have?† Eddie was intensely dedicated too. Adrian sometimes called him mini-Dimitri. Although Eddie was going to high school and completing assignments just like me, I knew he'd drop any homework in an instant to help out with the greater good. I could think of only one thing that would take precedence over helping find a â€Å"cure† for being Strigoi. My heart suddenly raced. â€Å"Is Jill okay?† She had to be. Someone would have told me, right? Eddie's main purpose in Palm Springs – and mine – was to keep her safe. If she was in danger, it would trump everything else. â€Å"She's fine,† said Dimitri. â€Å"I talked to her this morning. I'm not sure what's going on, but Eddie wouldn't be away without good reason.† â€Å"I suppose not,† I murmured, still concerned. â€Å"You worry as much as me,† teased Dimitri. â€Å"I didn't think that was possible.† â€Å"It's my job to worry. I always have to make sure everyone's okay.† â€Å"Sometimes it's not a bad thing to make sure you're okay too. You might find it actually helps others.† I scoffed. â€Å"Rose always joked about your ‘Zen Master Wisdom.' Am I getting a taste of it? If so, I can see why she was helpless against your charms.† This earned me one of Dimitri's rare, genuine laughs. â€Å"I think so. If you ask her, she'll claim it was the staking and decapitation. But I'm sure it was the Zen wisdom that won her in the end.† My answering smile immediately melted into a yawn. It was amazing that I could joke with a dhampir. I used to have panic attacks being in the same room with them or Moroi. Slowly, over the last six months, my anxiety had begun to ease up. I'd never shake the feeling of â€Å"otherness† I got from all of them, but I'd come a long way. Part of me knew it was a good thing that I still drew that line between them and humans, but it was also good to be flexible in order to make my job smoother. Not too flexible, that inner Alchemist voice warned. â€Å"Here we are,† said Dimitri, pulling up in front of my dorm at Amberwood Prep. If he'd noticed my shift in mood, he didn't say so. â€Å"You should get some rest.† â€Å"I'll try,† I said. â€Å"But I need to find out what's going on with Eddie first.† Dimitri's face turned all-business. â€Å"If you can find him, you should bring him over tonight, and we can see about getting a little work done. Sonya would love it. She has some new ideas.† I nodded, reminding myself that that was the kind of standard we needed to adhere to. Work, work, work. We had to remember our higher goals. â€Å"I'll see what I can do.† I thanked him again and then headed inside, filled with resolve to carry out my mission. So, it was a bit disappointing when my lofty goals were shattered so quickly. â€Å"Miss Melrose?† I turned immediately at the sound of the last name I'd assumed here at Amberwood. Mrs. Weathers, our plump, elderly dorm matron, was hurrying over to me. Her face was lined with worry, which couldn't bode well. â€Å"I'm so glad you're back,† she said. â€Å"I trust you had a good family visit?† â€Å"Yes, ma'am.† If by â€Å"good,† she meant â€Å"terrifying and unsettling.† Mrs. Weathers beckoned me over to her desk. â€Å"I need to talk to you about your cousin.† I held back a grimace as I recalled Jill's e-mail. Cousin Angeline. All of us attending Amberwood were doing so under fake family connections. Jill and Eddie were my siblings. Angeline was our cousin. It helped explain why we were always together and getting involved with each other's business. I sat down with Mrs. Weathers and thought longingly of my bed. â€Å"What's happened?† I asked. Mrs. Weathers sighed. â€Å"Your cousin is having trouble with our dress code.† That was a surprise. â€Å"But we have uniforms, ma'am.† â€Å"Of course,† she said. â€Å"But not outside of classes.† That was true. I was in khaki dress pants and a green short-sleeved blouse, along with a small gold cross I always wore. I did a mental rundown of Angeline's wardrobe, trying to recall if I'd ever seen anything concerning about it. Probably the most appalling part was its quality. Angeline had come from the Keepers, a mixed community of humans, Moroi, and dhampirs who lived in the Appalachian Mountains. Along with a lack of electricity and plumbing, the Keepers chose to make a lot of their clothing or at least wear it into threads. â€Å"Friday night, I saw her wearing the most appallingly short jean shorts,† continued Mrs. Weathers with a shudder. â€Å"I immediately chastised her, and she told me they were the only way she could be comfortable in the heat outside. I gave her a warning and advised she find more appropriate attire. Saturday, she appeared in the same shorts and a tank top that was totally indecent. That was when I suspended her to the dorm for the rest of the weekend.† â€Å"I'm sorry, ma'am,† I said. Really, I had no idea what else to say. I'd spent the weekend caught up in the epic battle to save humanity, and now†¦ jean shorts? Mrs. Weathers grew hesitant. â€Å"I know†¦ well, I know this isn't really anything you should be involved in. It's a parental matter. But, seeing as how you're so responsible and look out for the rest of your family†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I sighed. â€Å"Yes, ma'am. I'll take care of it. Thank you for not taking more severe action against her.† I went upstairs, my small suitcase growing heavier with each step. When I reached the second floor, I stopped, unsure what to do. One more floor would take me to my room. This floor would take me to â€Å"Cousin Angeline.† Reluctantly, I turned into the second floor hall, knowing the sooner this was dealt with, the better. â€Å"Sydney!† Jill Mastrano opened the dorm room's door, her light green eyes shining with joy. â€Å"You're back.† â€Å"So it seems,† I said, following her inside. Angeline was there as well, lounging on her bed with a textbook. I was pretty sure that was the first time I'd ever seen her study, but the house arrest probably limited her recreational options. â€Å"What did the Alchemists want?† asked Jill. She sat cross-legged on her own bed and began absentmindedly playing with the strands of her curly, light brown hair. I shrugged. â€Å"Paperwork. Boring stuff. Sounds like things were a little more exciting here.† That was delivered with a pointed look at Angeline. The dhampir girl jumped off her bed, face furious and blue eyes flashing. â€Å"It wasn't my fault! That Weathers woman was completely out of line!† she exclaimed, a slight southern drawl in her words. A quick scan of Angeline showed nothing too concerning. Her jeans were threadbare but decent, as was her T-shirt. Even her mop of strawberry blonde hair was tame for a change, tied back in a ponytail. â€Å"What on earth did you wear that got her so upset then?† I asked. Scowling, Angeline went to her dresser and produced a pair of jean shorts with the most ragged hem I'd ever seen. I thought they'd unravel before my eyes. They were also so short that I wouldn't have been surprised if they showed underwear when she wore them. â€Å"Where did you get those?† Angeline almost looked proud. â€Å"I made them.† â€Å"With what, a hacksaw?† â€Å"I had two pairs of jeans,† she said pragmatically. â€Å"It was so hot out, I figured I might as well turn one into shorts.† â€Å"She used a knife from the cafeteria,† said Jill helpfully. â€Å"Couldn't find the scissors,† explained Angeline. My bed. Where was my bed? â€Å"Mrs. Weathers mentioned something about an indecent shirt too,† I said. â€Å"Oh,† said Jill. â€Å"That was mine.† I felt my eyebrows rise. â€Å"What? I know you don't own anything ‘indecent.†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Before Angeline had come along a month ago, Jill and I had been roommates. â€Å"It's not,† agreed Jill. â€Å"Except, it's not really Angeline's size.† I glanced between the two girls and understood. Jill was tall and slim, like most Moroi, with a figure much coveted among human fashion designers, a figure I would've killed to have. Jill had even done some modeling. With that figure came a modest chest. Angeline's chest†¦ was not so modest. If she wore a tank top in Jill's size, I imagined the shirt's structural integrity would indeed be stretched to indecent limits. â€Å"Jill wears that tank top all the time and doesn't get in trouble,† said Angeline defensively. â€Å"I figured there wouldn't be a problem if I borrowed it.† My head was starting to hurt. Still, I supposed this was better than the time Angeline had been caught making out with a guy in the boys' bathroom. â€Å"Well. This is easily fixed. We can go – well, I can go since you're stuck here – and get you some clothes in your size tonight.† â€Å"Oh,† Angeline said, suddenly turning more upbeat, â€Å"you don't have to. Eddie's handling it.† If not for Jill nodding along, I would've thought it was a joke. â€Å"Eddie? Eddie's buying you clothes?† Angeline sighed happily. â€Å"Isn't that nice of him?† Nice? No, but I understood why Eddie would do it. Getting decent clothes for Angeline was the last thing he probably wanted to do, but he would do it. Like me, he understood duty. And now I could guess why Eddie had canceled the experiments – and been vague about his reasons for doing so. I immediately took out my cell phone and called him. He answered right away, like always. I was certain he was never more than three feet from his phone at all times. â€Å"Hello, Sydney. Glad you're back.† He paused. â€Å"You are back, right?† â€Å"Yeah, I'm with Jill and Angeline. I understand you've been doing some shopping.† He groaned. â€Å"Don't get me started. I just walked into my room.† â€Å"You want to swing by with your purchases? I need the car back anyway.† There was a moment's hesitation. â€Å"Would you mind coming over here? As long as Jill's okay. She is okay, right? She doesn't need me? Because if she does – â€Å" â€Å"She's fine.† His dorm wasn't far, but I'd been hoping for a quick nap. Nonetheless, I found myself agreeing, just like I always did. â€Å"Okay. I'll meet you in the lobby in about fifteen minutes?† â€Å"Sounds good. Thanks, Sydney.† As soon as I disconnected, Angeline asked excitedly, â€Å"Is Eddie coming over?† â€Å"I'm going to him,† I said. Her face fell. â€Å"Oh. Well, I guess it doesn't matter since I have to stay here anyway. I can't wait until I'm free to train again. I'd like to get some more one-on-one time with him.† I hadn't realized how focused Angeline was on her training. In fact, she seemed really excited about the prospect of it. I left their room and was surprised to find Jill right behind me once the door shut. Her eyes were wide and anxious. â€Å"Sydney†¦ I'm sorry.† I regarded her curiously, wondering now if she'd done something. â€Å"For what?† She gestured toward the door. â€Å"For Angeline. I should have done better at keeping her out of trouble.† I almost smiled. â€Å"That's not your job.† â€Å"Yeah, I know†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She glanced down, letting some of her long hair fall forward. â€Å"But still. I know I should be more like you. Instead, I've just been†¦ you know. Having fun.† â€Å"You're entitled to it,† I said, trying to ignore the subtle commentary on me. â€Å"I should still be more responsible,† she argued. â€Å"You are responsible,† I assured her. â€Å"Especially compared to Angeline.† My family had a cat back in Utah that I was pretty sure was more responsible than Angeline. Jill's face brightened, and I left her so that I could return the suitcase to my room. Angeline's arrival and my work in busting Keith had earned me my own private room in the dorm, something I treasured. Inside it, everything was quiet and orderly. My perfect world. The one place that the chaos of my life couldn't touch. The neatly made bed was asking to be slept in. Begging, really. Soon, I promised it. I hope. Amberwood Prep was divided into three campuses, East (where the girls were housed), West (where the boys were), and Central (containing all the academic buildings). A shuttle bus ran between them on a regular schedule, or brave souls could walk between them in the heat. I usually didn't mind the temperatures, but walking seemed like a lot of work today. So, I took the shuttle to West Campus and tried to stay awake. The lobby of the boys' dorm was a lot like my own, people coming and going to either catch up on academic work or simply enjoy the Sunday off. I glanced around, but Eddie wasn't here yet. â€Å"Hey, Melbourne.† I turned and found Trey Juarez approaching, a grin on his tanned face. He was a senior like me and had picked up the Melbourne nickname after one of our teachers proved incapable of remembering Melrose. Honestly, with all these names, it was a wonder I knew who I was anymore. â€Å"Hey, Trey,† I said. Trey was a bona fide high school football star – but also pretty brainy, no matter how much he tried to hide it. We got along well as a result, and my help in restoring his athletic status last month had gone a long way to raise my stock in his eyes. A backpack hung on one of his shoulders. â€Å"Are you finally going to finish that chem lab write-up?† â€Å"Yup,† he said. â€Å"Me and half the cheerleading squad. You want to join us?† I rolled my eyes. â€Å"Somehow I doubt there'll be much work going on. Besides, I'm meeting Eddie.† Trey gave an easy shrug and brushed some unruly black hair out of his eyes. â€Å"Your loss. See you tomorrow.† He took a couple of steps and then glanced back at me. â€Å"Hey, are you dating anyone?† I immediately started to say no, and then a panicked thought occurred to me. I had a tendency to take things very literally. Friends of mine here, Kristin and Julia, had been trying to train me up in the subtleties of high school social life. One of their chief lessons was that what people said wasn't always what they meant – particularly in romantic matters. â€Å"Are you†¦ are you asking me out?† I asked, taken aback. This was the last thing I needed right now. How should I respond? Should I say yes? Should I say no? I'd had no idea helping him with chemistry homework would be so alluring. I should've made him do it on his own. Trey looked as startled by the thought as I was. â€Å"What? No. Of course not.† â€Å"Thank God,† I said. I liked Trey, but I had no interest in dating him – or figuring out what the appropriate way to say â€Å"no† would be. He shot me a wry look. â€Å"You don't have to look that relieved.† â€Å"Sorry,† I said, trying to mask my embarrassment. â€Å"Why'd you ask?† â€Å"Because I know the perfect guy for you. I'm pretty sure he's your soul mate.† We were back in familiar territory now: logic vs. lack of logic. â€Å"I don't believe in soul mates,† I said. â€Å"It's statistically unreasonable that there's only one ideal person for everyone in the world.† And yet, for half a moment, I wished it was kind of possible. It'd be nice to have someone who understood some of the things that went on in my head. Trey rolled his eyes. â€Å"Okay. Not a soul mate. How about just someone you could maybe go out with once in a while and have a nice time with?† I shook my head. â€Å"I don't have time for anything like that.† And I didn't. Keeping everything in order with the group, and pretending to be a student, was a full time job as it was. â€Å"I'm telling you, you'd like him. He goes to a public school and just started at Spencer's.† Spencer's was a coffee shop Trey worked at, an arrangement that yielded me discounts. â€Å"The other day, he was going off on unaerobic vs. aerobic respiration, and I was thinking, ‘You know who this sounds like? Melbourne.'† â€Å"It's anaerobic respiration,† I corrected. â€Å"And it still doesn't mean I have the time. Sorry.† I had to admit, I was immensely curious about how that topic would have come up between baristas, but figured it was best not to encourage Trey. â€Å"Okay,† he said. â€Å"Don't say I never tried to help you.† â€Å"Wouldn't dream of it,† I assured him. â€Å"Hey, there's Eddie.† â€Å"My cue to go then. See you guys.† Trey gave a mock salute to Eddie and me. â€Å"Don't forget my offer if you want a hot date, Melbourne.† Trey left, and Eddie shot me an astonished look. â€Å"Did Trey just ask you out?† â€Å"No. He's just got some co-worker he wants to set me up with.† â€Å"Maybe that's not a bad idea.† â€Å"It's a terrible idea. Let's go outside.† The desert heat didn't seem to care that it was October, and I led us to a bench right by the dorm's stucco walls. Partial shade from some nearby palm trees offered mild relief. People swore the temperature would taper soon, but I'd seen no sign of change. Eddie handed me my car keys and a shopping bag from a local superstore. â€Å"I had to guess at size,† he told me. â€Å"When in doubt, I went big. Figured it was safer that way.† â€Å"Probably.† I sat down on a bench and rifled through his purchases. Jeans, khakis, a few solid colored T-shirts. They were very practical, very much something a no-nonsense guy like Eddie would pick out. I approved. â€Å"The size actually looks right. Good eye. We'll have to send you out shopping more often.† â€Å"If that's what I have to do,† he said, face serious. I couldn't help but laugh in surprise. â€Å"I was joking.† I put the shirts back in the bag. â€Å"I know that couldn't have been fun.† Eddie's face gave nothing away. â€Å"Oh, come on. It's okay. You don't have to play stoic with me. I know you didn't enjoy it.† â€Å"I'm here to do a job. Doesn't matter if I enjoy it or not.† I started to protest but then thought better of it. After all, wasn't that my philosophy too? Sacrificing my own wants for higher goals? Eddie was intensely dedicated to this mission. He never backed down. I expected nothing less from him than single-minded focus. â€Å"So, does that mean you're up for some experiments tonight?† I asked. â€Å"Of cours – † He stopped and reconsidered. â€Å"Are Jill and Angeline coming?† â€Å"No. Angeline's still under house arrest.† â€Å"Thank God,† he said with visible relief. His reaction was probably the most surprising thing to happen today. I couldn't imagine why Eddie would look so relieved. Aside from his guardian loyalty to Jill, he was also crazy about her. He would've done anything for her, even if it wasn't his job, but refused to share his feelings with her. He thought he was unworthy of a princess. An uneasy thought occurred to me. â€Å"Are you†¦ are you avoiding Jill because of her and Micah?† Micah was Eddie's roommate, a nice guy who caused Eddie all sorts of therapy-worthy trauma because he bore so much similarity to Eddie's dead best friend, Mason. Micah also had a weird pseudo-dating relationship with Jill. None of us were happy about it, since (aside from the Keepers) humans dating Moroi or dhampirs was strictly taboo. We'd finally decided it would be impossible to keep Jill from a social life, and she swore nothing serious or physical was going on between her and Micah. They just spent a lot of time together. And flirted incessantly. He didn't know the truth about her, but I wondered at what point he'd want more from their relationship. Eddie kept insisting it was better for Jill to have a casual relationship with a human than one with an â€Å"unworthy† dhampir like him, but I knew it had to be torturous. â€Å"Of course not,† said Eddie sharply. â€Å"It's not Jill I want to avoid. It's Angeline.† â€Å"Angeline? What's she done now?† Eddie ran a hand through his hair in frustration. His was a sandy blond, not far from my own, which was a dark gold. The similarity made it easy to pass ourselves off as twins. â€Å"She won't leave me alone! She's always dropping these suggestive comments when I'm around†¦ and she won't stop staring at me. Like, you wouldn't think that'd be creepy, but it is. She's always watching. And I can't avoid her because she's with Jill a lot of the time, and I have to keep Jill safe.† I thought back on recent interactions. â€Å"Are you sure you're reading this right? I've never noticed anything.† â€Å"That's because you don't notice that kind of thing,† he said. â€Å"You cannot imagine how many excuses she finds to rub up against me.† After seeing her homemade jean shorts, I actually could imagine it. â€Å"Huh. Well, maybe I can talk to her.† Like that, Eddie snapped back to all-business. â€Å"No. It's my problem, my personal life. I'll deal with it.† â€Å"Are you sure? Because I can – â€Å" â€Å"Sydney,† he said gently. â€Å"You're the most responsible person I know, but this isn't what you're here to do. You don't have to take care of everything and everyone.† â€Å"I don't mind,† I said automatically. â€Å"It is what I'm here for.† But even as I said it, I wondered if that was true. A bit of the anxiety from the bunker returned, making me question if what I did was truly Alchemist responsibility or the desire to help those who – against protocol – had become my friends. â€Å"See? Now you sound just like I did earlier.† He stood up and flashed me a grin. â€Å"You want to come with me to Adrian's? Be responsible together?† His words were meant as a compliment, but they echoed too close to what the Alchemists had told me. And Mrs. Weathers. And Jill. Everyone thought I was so amazing, so responsible and controlled. But if I was so amazing, then why was I always so unsure if I was doing the right thing?

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Environmental Toxicology

Introduction to Environmental Toxicology A lecture by Dr Rick Leah (Long version of Notes prepared by Dr R T Leah, Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool but including material summarized and adapted from various locations on the www*) Aims The impact of toxic chemicals on wildlife and humans has been of great concern for the last fifty years. Unfortunately this is a very large, complex subject area which can only be covered superficially within the time available.However, this lecture is intended to give an introduction to fundamental aspects of how some pollutants interact with living organisms to cause deleterious effects. The complexity will be explained and simplified where possible. You should understand at least a little about the biology of key organisms and how pollutants cause damage at a physiological level. You should be aware of how pollutants can induce change in organisms which can be used as a ‘biomarker’ of the presence and action of the pollutants (although this will form the subject of a later lecture in this course).Thus as the main outcome of this lecture you should have an appreciation of the wide range of contemporary issues that are caused by toxic chemicals in the environment and what regulatory authorities are doing to monitor and control them. You should understand the main hazards that toxic chemicals pose and how risk to humans and wildlife is controlled. You should be aware of the main groups of pollutants of contemporary concern.The material covered will be useful for the consideration of two case studies on the impact of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes of North America and the Baltic Sea in later lectures. [pic] Environmental Toxicology or Ecotoxicology? [pic] Introduction It was after World War II that increasing concern about the impact of toxic chemicals on the environment led Toxicology to expand from the study of toxic impacts of chemicals on man to that of toxic impacts on the environment. This subject became known as Environmental Toxicology.Ecotoxicology is a relatively new discipline and was first defined by Rene Truhaut in 1969. It attempts to combine two very different subjects: ecology (â€Å"the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms† Krebs 1985) and toxicology (â€Å"the study of injurious effects of substances on living organisms†, usually man). In toxicology the organisms sets the limit of the investigation whereas Ecotoxicology aspires to assess the impact of chemicals not only on individuals but also on populations and whole ecosystems.During the early years, the major tools of Environmental Toxicology were: detection of toxic residues in the environment or in individual organisms and testing for the toxicity of chemicals on animals other than man. It was however, a very big jump in understanding from an experimental animal to a complex, multivariate environment and the subject of ECOTOXICOLOGY develop ed from the need to measure and predict the impact of pollutants on populations, communities and whole ecosystems rather than on individuals.There is an on-going debate as to the exact scope and definition of ecotoxicology. The simplest definition found to date is that ecotoxicology is â€Å"the study of the harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems† (Walker et al, 1996). A more complete definition of Ecotoxicology comes from Forbes & Forbes 1994 â€Å"the field of study which integrates the ecological and toxicological effects of chemical pollutants on populations, communities and ecosystems with the fate (Transport, transformation and breakdown) of such pollutants in the environment†. nd several books have been written recently which discuss this in some depth, these include: Cairns, J Jr & Niederlehner B R (1994) Ecological Toxicity Testing. CRC Press Inc: Boca Raton Forbes, V E & Forbes T L (1994) Ecotoxicology in Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall Ecotoxicolog y Series 2: London. Walker C H, Hopkin S P, Sibly R M & Peakall, D B (1996) Principles of Ecotoxicology. Taylor & Francis: London There are three main objectives in ecotoxicology (Forbes & Forbes 1994): †¢ obtaining data for risk assessment and environmental management. meeting the legal requirements for the development and release of new chemicals into the environment. †¢ developing empirical or theoretical principles to improve knowledge of the behaviour and effects of chemicals in living systems. (More information about the highlighted terms used below can be found in the Definitions section. ) In order to achieve these objectives, the main areas of study are: The distribution of POLLUTANTS in the environment, their entry, movement, storage and transformation within the environment.The effects of pollutants on living organisms. At an individual level, TOXICANTS may disrupt the biochemical, molecular and physiological structure and function which will in turn have conseq uences for the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. At the population level it may be possible to detect changes in the numbers of individuals, in gene frequency (as in resistance of insects to insecticides) or changes in ecosystem function (e. g. soil nitrification) which are attributable to pollution.It may be possible to use BIOMARKERS to establish that a natural population has been exposed to pollution and these can provide a valuable guide to whether or not a natural population is at risk or in need of further investigation. For the purposes of the Regulation and Registration of chemicals the toxicity of individual chemicals is principally investigated via TOXICITY TESTING, the main tool of which is the Standard Toxicity Test (STT) which usually tests the DOSE or CONCENTRATION of a particular chemical that is toxic to under controlled, laboratory conditions.Toxicity tests are mainly carried out using individual animals although there has been a move towards the use of more complex systems known as MESOCOSMS. In some situations, particularly in the case of pesticides, it may be possible to carry out FIELD TRIALS to assess toxicity. Toxicity data are used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. [pic] Significant Issues with Chemicals that have driven the development of Ecotoxicology [pic] 1. DDT – around the world 2. Cadmium in Japan 3. Mercury in Japan 4. PCBs in Japan and Taiwan 5.Dioxins – various 6. The contamination of pristine environments (eg Arctic) by atmospheric transport of organohalogens Most workers in the field of ecotoxicology refer to the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) as a landmark in the public’s awareness of potential damage to human and environmental health from man-made toxic substances. According to Rodricks (1992), Carson’s book â€Å"almost single-handedly created modern society’s fears about synthetic chemicals in the environment and, among other things, fostered renewed interest in the science of toxicology†.Certainly the consolidation of academic and related pursuits into the study of toxic substances in the environment dates from about the same time as the publication of Silent Spring. Prior to the 1960s, there were no coordinated programmes in research, in education or in regulation that systematically addressed toxic substances in the environment. Considerable progress has been made in all these areas during the past four decades. Fate of chemicals in the environment and within organisms As ecotoxicologists we are concerned with the movement and fate of toxic chemicals at both the organism level and that of the whole ecosystem.The relevant issues are: †¢ the source, †¢ transport, †¢ modification and †¢ final fate of the pollutants. At the organism level we need to be concerned with †¢ Uptake †¢ Excretion †¢ Sites of action, metabolism or storage T oxicity testing and the regulation and release of toxic chemicals As ecotoxicology largely arose from toxicology and the need to regulate the introduction of potentially toxic chemicals into the environment, toxicity testing remains central to the subject today. Most toxicity testing for pollutants is still based on tests on individual organisms in artificial test situations (see list of examples in next section).These tests are cheap, reliable and easy to perform but there is much debate about the relevance of many standard toxicity tests to ‘real life'. Initially in the early days of environmental toxicology the concept of the ‘most sensitive species' was used to relate the results of toxicity tests to the ‘real world'. Certain species in a particular community were assessed as being ‘most sensitive' to pollutants. The logic was that if a pollutant was non-toxic to the ‘most sensitive' species then it would be safe for the rest of the community.Essent ially, this logic remains today – the results of tests on single species, in artificial situations are extrapolated to predict the effects of pollutants on whole communities or ecosystems. It is assumed that if you have enough information about the effects of a pollutant on the parts of an ecosystem, then you can assemble the effects on the whole. There is however, some question about the usefulness of extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems.Forbes & Forbes (1994) argue that â€Å"understanding and predicting the consequences of pollutant-induced effects on ecosystems requires that the effects be examined at the level of interest† i. e. the population, community or ecosystem. This debate has been the source of much division in ecotoxicology, between the Applied, often Industrial, Ecotoxicologists concerned with the practicalities of chemical registration and testing and the Pure or Academic Ecotox icologists who regard many toxicity testing regimes as inappropriate or at worst useless.Unfortunately, never the twain shall meet and the level of communication between the two camps has not been great. A fictional exchange makes the point well (from Forbes & Forbes 1994): â€Å"Academic Ecotoxicologist: Single species acute toxicity tests are too simplistic and have no connection with what is really going on out in nature. These standard tests are not only irrelevant and a waste of time, they may in fact do more harm than good if they lead us to believe that we can use them to adequately protect the environment when in fact we cannot.Industrial Ecotoxicologist: These tests may be oversimplified, but they are also cost-efficient, easy to perform, the procedures have been worked out, and the fact is they are required by government. We have absolutely no incentive to do more than is required by law, and, frankly, you have given us little hard evidence that current test procedures do fail to protect the environment adequately. Government Ecotoxicologist: Do you have any idea of the number of new chemicals that we have to assess each year?We can't tell industry to stop producing new chemicals and we can't wait until we understand the whole system before we try to protect it. If you think current procedures fail, then come up with some better tests – which must of course be simple, cheap and fast. Academic Ecotoxicologist: (Pause) †¦ Well, it's very complex, and of course I'll need much more data before I can give you an answer. But those single-species acute tests are oversimplified and have no connection with what is really going on out in the field †¦ Government Ecotoxicologist: We need tests! Give us tests! â€Å"The way forward for Ecotoxicology must be to integrate its two halves much more fully. Toxicity testing, using single species, do provide useful information and will almost certainly remain central to the regulation and registration of toxic chemicals but much can be done to expand the scope of toxicity testing, to add tests that apply to higher levels of organisation and so increase their relevance to the communities and ecosystems that are being protected. Testing methodologies An extensive range of ecotoxicological and biodegradation tests are required for the chemical, agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries.The tests often used include: †¢ Bacterial toxicity tests †¢ Algal Growth tests with a variety of species †¢ Acute toxicity tests with Lemna minor †¢ Acute and Reproduction tests in Daphnia magna †¢ Acute toxicity tests with the marine copepod Acartia tonsa †¢ Oyster embryo larval toxicity test †¢ Acute toxicity test with the marine invertebrate Mysidopsis bahia †¢ Earthworm toxicity tests †¢ Toxicity Tests with sediment dwelling organisms such as Chironomus or Lumbriculus †¢ Acute toxicity tests with freshwater and marine fish †¢ Bioaccumulatio n in fish †¢ Fish growth tests Early Life Cycle tests with fish Algal tests Several freshwater species are routinely tested. The most commonly used are Scenedesmus subspicatus and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Other species used include Navicula Pelliculosa. Skeletonema costatum is the marine species preferred by most regulatory bodies. Electronic particle counters and size distribution analysers are used to monitor the growth of algae in the studies. Lemna is a useful substitute for higher plants. Invertebrate Tests Acute and reproduction studies are routinely conducted with Daphnia magna.Acute tests with other species are also available including the marine copepod Acartia tonsa, the freshwater sediment dwelling species Chironomus riparius or Lumbirculus variegatus and the amphipod Gammarus pulex. Fish Acute tests are conducted under static, semi-static or flow-through conditions. The choice of test regime is dependent upon the chemical properties. Tests using species comm only encountered wild in the UK are rare as most tests are conducted using species adapted for life in the laboratory including: The species used include: †¢ Rainbow trout †¢ Common carp Golden orfe †¢ Bluegill sunfish †¢ Fathead minnow †¢ Japanese killifish †¢ Zebra fish Studies can also be conducted using marine species such as Turbot and Sheepshead minnow. Definitions used in Ecotoxicology Some of the terms used in ecotoxicology, such as LD50, have simple, widely accepted definitions and hence can be defined here with some confidence. Others however vary quite widely in their interpretation from one text to another. I have tried to indicate these below and can only suggest that the reader refer carefully to the introduction of the text they are using.Where there is likely to be some contradiction I have listed the reference for the definitions given. [pic] ECOTOXICOLOGY †¢ is concerned with the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on li ving organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems: it includes the transfer pathways of those agents and their interactions with the environment. Butler, 1978. †¢ investigates the effects of substances on organisms. The hazard to animal and plant populations can be determined by using survey data (retrospective) or by performing specific tests (prospective).Rudolph & Boje, 1986. †¢ the science that seeks to predict the impacts of chemicals on ecosystems. Levin et al 1989. †¢ the study of harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems. Walker et al 1996. [pic] POLLUTANT or CONTAMINANT, XENOBIOTIC or ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL? Variations of use of these terms are commonplace. â€Å"Environmental chemical† may be used to describe simply any chemical that occurs in the environment (Walker et al 1996) or substances which enter the environment as a result of human activity or occur in higher concentrations than they would in nature (Rombk e & Moltmann 1995).The terms contaminant and pollutant can be described separately but are often used as synonyms. Both words are used to describe chemicals that are found at levels judged to be above those that would normally be expected. â€Å"Pollutants† carries the connotation of the potential to cause harm, whereas contaminants are not by definition harmful. This is however, not an easy distinction to make. Whether or not a contaminant is a pollutant may depend on its level in the environment and the organism or system being considered, thus one particular substance may be a contaminant relative to one species but pollutant relative to another.Finally, in practice it is often difficult to demonstrate that harm is not being caused so that in effect pollutant and contaminant become synonymous. (Walker et al 1996). Xenobiotic is used to describe compounds that are ‘foreign' to a particular organism, that is they do not play a part in their normal biochemistry. A chemi cal that is normal to one organism may be foreign to another and so xenobiotics may be naturally occurring as well as man-made compounds (Walker et al 1996). The term Xenobiotic is sometimes also used in a more general sense to describe â€Å"foreign substances† in the environment (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic]HARM or DAMAGE? Biological systems are resilient to harm caused by adverse factors in the environment since they are able to adapt to some insults. There is a fundamental difference in viewpoint between these two words, one defines harm as an effect regardless of any biological compensation that the population might make, the other defines damage as occurring only if there is an effect subsequent to any compensation. harm: biochemical or physical changes which adversely affect individual organisms' birth, growth or mortality rates. Such changes would necessarily produce population declines were it not that other processes may compensate. Walker et al 1996). damage: â⠂¬Å"the interaction between a substance and a biological system. The substance's potential to cause damage is weighed against the protective potential inherent in the biological system (e. g. excretion or metabolic reactions, adaptation or regeneration)† (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic] ENDPOINTS, DOSE and CONCENTRATION There are many different ways in which toxicity can be measured but they are usually assessed relative to a particular outcome or END POINT. Initially, most Toxicity Tests measured the number of organisms killed by a particular DOSE or CONCENTRATION of the chemical being tested.With terrestrial animals the DOSE of chemical (taken orally, applied to the skin or injected) administered is usually recorded. DOSE is usually used where the dietary dose of a test chemical can be accurately determined. For aquatic organisms or where the test chemical is dosed into the surrounding medium, the tests usually measure the CONCENTRATION of chemical in the surrounding water/me dium. The following measures, known as a group as EDs or ECs (Effective Doses or Effective Concentrations) are frequently used to describe data from toxicity tests: LD50Median lethal dose, that is the dose that kills 50% of the population LC50 Median lethal concentration. ED50/EC50 Median effect dose/concentration, that is the dose that produced a defined effect to 50% of the population. NOED/NOEC No Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration) NOEL No Observed Effect Level. Sometimes this more general term is used to describe either of the above. It can be defined as the highest level (that is dose or concentration) of the test chemical that does not cause a statistically significant difference from the control. LOED/LOE Lowest Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration)There has been a move away from the use of lethal end points in toxicity testing towards the measurement of EFFECTS rather than death. Examples of EFFECTS which can be used include changes in: reproduction (eg. number of egg s laid or young hatched); growth (e. g. biomass or body length) and biochemical or physiological effects (e. g. enzyme synthesis or respiration). [pic] HAZARD AND RISK Toxicity data is used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. Where: HAZARD is the potential to cause harm RISK is the probability that harm will be caused.Defining HAZARD involves answering two questions, ‘how much damage are we prepared to tolerate' and ‘how much proof is enough'. The first is a question for society, alleviating/avoiding/repairing damage involves costs, how much are we prepared to pay? The second is largely a scientific problem of providing sufficient evidence that damage is due to pollution. HAZARD is not necessarily directly related to toxicity, it is a product of exposure and toxicity, a compound with moderate toxicity but very high exposure may cause more damage that a very toxic chemical with very low exposure.RISK is usually defined using the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the predicted environmental no effect concentration (PNEC). Information on the movement and behaviour of pollutants in the environment are used to calculate the PEC whereas data from Toxicity Testing must be extrapolated to calculate the PNEC. The making of these calculations is not a precise art, apart from doubts about the extrapolation of Toxicity data from the lab to the field it can be very difficult to estimate the degree of exposure, particularly for mobile taxa such as birds and mammals. [pic]BIOMARKERS A Biomarker can be defined as a â€Å"biological response to a chemical or chemicals that gives a measure of exposure and sometimes, also, of toxic effect† (Walker et al 1996), they can be divided into biomarkers of exposure and of toxic effect. Examples of biomarkers range from the inhibition of AChE (acetylcholinesterase) in the nervous system of animals to the thinning of eggshells in birds. Biomarkers can help to brid ge the gap between the laboratory and the field by giving direct evidence of whether or not a particular animal, plant or ecosystem is being affected by pollution.They will often provide more reliable evidence of exposure than measurements of the pollutants themselves in the environment, the latter are often short-lived and difficult to detect, whereas their effects (detectable via biomarkers) may be much longer-term. [pic] A QUESTION OF SCALE AND ACCURACY The difficulty in extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems has led to attempts to develop more complex systems which can be used in toxicity tests.Such systems are usually termed microcosms, mesocosms or macrocosms, that is small, medium or large multispecies systems. It must be possible to control conditions in these systems to such an extent that they can provide meaningful, reproducible (that is, the system could be accurately copied elsewhere), replicable (that is, two replicates of the same experiment would produce the same results) data in toxicity tests. Simply because they are more complex systems it is seldom possible to produce tests that are as precise and controlled as those carried out in single species STTs.However, despite their limitations these larger-scale tests can provide important insights into the effect of pollutants on whole systems rather than on single species. [pic] MIXTURES OF CHEMICALS, ADDITION OR MULTIPLICATION? In natural systems, organisms are often (usually) exposed to more than one pollutant at the same time. However, regulatory authorities usually assume – unless there is evidence to the contrary – that the toxicity of combinations of chemicals is roughly additive.Fortunately in many cases this is quite correct but in some cases, toxicity is more than additive in that is there is POTENTIATION of toxicity. One particular type of potentiation called SYNERGISM occurs where the effect of two or more chemicals combine to have greater impact than expected from their individual concentrations. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Definitions [pic] What is a pesticide? A literal definition of a pesticide would be â€Å"a killer of pests†. In practice pesticides are no longer aimed exclusively at killing the pests they are used to control and the term has acquired a rather wider meaning uch as â€Å"the chemical tools used to manage all kinds of pests† or in the US it's more official definition is â€Å"any substance used for controlling, preventing destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest† (all definitions from Ware 1991). Hence pesticides include not only those chemicals which kill the pest they are used against but also those such as insect chemosterilants or plant and insect growth regulators which control pest populations without necessarily, physically, killing the pests they come into contact with.Pesticides have been divided into many diffe rent classes. Firstly, according to the target organism that they control, so insect-icides kill (or control) insects, rodent-icides control rodents etc. The -icide suffix has been widely used in the past, as shown in Table 1, but relatively few of these terms are in common use today. Secondly, pesticides can be classified according to their mode of action, that is the way in which they act on the pest population, e. g. attractants, repellents, chemosterilants etc.Finally, the definition of a pesticide has been widened once again to: â€Å"pesticides are used by man as intentional additions to his environment in order to improve environmental quality for himself, his animals or his plants† (Ware 1991). This definition allows the inclusion of 2 new classes of treatment. Firstly those such as plant growth regulators, which are not only used as herbicides to control weeds, but also to control directly the growth of the crop and hence improve its success.For instance, they are us ed to reduce the growth of cereals so that they do not become too tall and prone to ‘lodging' before harvest. Secondly, microbial pesticides which are not based on a chemical but on bacteria, fungi, nematodes and viruses which attack the pest. [pic] Table 1 Classes of pesticide according to : A. the target organism and B. pesticide mode of action. After Ware (1991). |CLASS |FUNCTION | |A.By Target Organism   | |acaricide |kills/controls mites | |algicide |kills/controls algae | |avicide |kills/controls or repels birds | |bactericide |kills/controls bacteria | |fungicide |kills/controls fungi | |herbicide |kills/controls plants | |insecticide |kills/controls insects | |larvicide |kills/controls larvae (usually mosquitoes) | |miticide |kills/controls mites | |molluscicide |kills/controls snails & slugs.May include oysters, clams, & mussels | |nematicide |kills/controls nematodes | |ovicide |kills/controls eggs | |pediculicide |kills/controls lice | |piscicide |kills/c ontrols fish | |predicide |kills/controls predators (usually such as coyotes) | |rodenticide |kills/controls rodents | |silvicide |kills/controls trees & brush | |slimicide |kills/controls slime | termiticide |kills/controls termites | |B. By Mode of Action – by affect on pest   | |attractants/pheromones |Attract animals, especially insects usually into traps. Often sexual pheromones. | |chemosterilants |Sterilise insects or vertebrates (birds, rodents). Usually sterilise males. | |defoliants |Remove leaves. | |desiccants |Speed drying of plants. Used not only to kill weeds but also as pre-harvest desiccants to make harvesting | | |easier. |disinfectants |Kill or inactivate harmful micro-organisms | |feeding stimulants |Cause insects to feed more vigorously | |growth regulators |Stimulate or retard plant or insect growth. Natural or artificial hormones used not only to kill weed species | | |but also to protect crops such as cereals from lodging. | |repellents |Repel insects, mites, ticks or pest vertebrates (dogs, rabbits, deer, birds). | |B. By Mode of Action – by timing of application | |curative (fungicides) |applied to the plant after initial infection. |eradicant (fungicides) |applied when disease symptoms have already become visible, often to prevent the spread of disease. | |protectant (fungicides) |applied to the plant surface before infection. | |pre-plant or pre-sowing |applied before crop is sown or planted | |(herbicides) | | |pre-emergence (herbicides) |applied before the crop has germinated | |post-emergence(herbicides) |applied after the crop has germinated | |B.By Mode of Action – by selectivity | |the degree to which a pesticide discriminates between target and non-target organisms. | |selective |A selective pesticide effects a very narrow range of species other than the target pest or may be. The chemical | | |itself may be selective in that it does not affect non-target species or it may be used selectively in such a | | |way that non-target species do not come into contact with it. | |non-selective |a non-selective pesticide kills a very wide range of plants, insects, fungi etc. | |B.By Mode of Action – by site of interaction with pest | |systemic |the pesticide is absorbed by the pest and moves around within the pest system to reach parts of the pest remote | | |from the point of application | |contact |contact pesticides directly affect the parts of the plant, insect, fungus etc to which they are applied. They | | |cause localised damage to the plant or animal tissue on contact. | References Barlow, F (1985) Chemistry and formulation. In: Pesticide Application: Principles and Practice. Ed: P T Haskell. Oxford Science Publications: Oxford. pp 1-34. Dent, D R (1995) Integrated Pest Management.Chapman & Hall: London, Glasgow, Weinheim, New York, Todyo, Melbourne, Madras. Rombke, J & J M Moltmann (1995) Applied Ecotoxicology. Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo. Wa re, G W (1991) Fundamentals of Pesticides. A self-instruction guide. Thomson Publications: Fresno USA. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Insecticides [pic] While pesticides can be divided into many classes by target organism, mode of action etc for most purposes chemical pesticides are divided into three major groups according to their target organism, that is: insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. These groups are then subdivided into chemical groups such as organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates etc.This simplified classification effectively groups acaricides, nematicides and molluscicides in with insecticides as many chemicals that have acaricidal, nematocidal or molluscicidal properties are also insecticidal. The current proliferation of chemical insecticides dates from World War II, until this time the insecticides available were based on: arsenicals, petroleum oils, sulphur, hydrogen cyanide gas, cryolite and on extracts from plants such as pyrethrum, nicotine and rotenone. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides gives a summary of the main chemical classes of insecticide and the main chemicals in each class. The characteristics of the main classes of insecticide: the organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids are summarised below. Organochlorines Also called: chlorinated hydrocarbonsA large and varied group that has a particularly high public profile because of the environmental problems they have caused. They were mostly discovered in 1942-56 and were very important in the early success of synthetic insecticides. They are mostly Insecticides with a very wide range of actions, they can be divided into three main groups: DDT and related compounds including rhothane (DDD) and methoxychlor. Widely used during World War II for control of disease vectors (such as mosquitoes) and subsequently much used on agricultural pests such as ectoparasites of farm animals and insect disease vectors and also widel y used against insects in domestic and industrial premises. chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor. ost widely used as seed dressings and soil insecticides. hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), such as lindane used against pests and parasites of farm animals, also in insecticidal seed dressings. Organochlorine insecticides are very stable solids with: limited vapour pressure, very low water solubility and high lipophilicity. They may be very persistent in their original form or as stable metabolites. They tend to be stored in body fats and are particularly hazardous because they are so stable and tend to accumulate in successive organisms in the food chain. DDT and the HCHs a regarded as only moderately toxic to mammals while the chlorinated cyclodienes are highly toxic.Action: all organochlorine insecticides are nerve poisons but DDT has a different action to the chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs. DDT acts on the sodium channels in the nervous system s o that the passage of an ‘action potential' along the nerve is disrupted. It causes uncontrolled repetitive spontaneous discharges along the nerve. Uncoordinated muscle tremors and twitches are characteristic symptoms. The chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs act on the GABA receptors which function as a channel for Cl – ions through the nerve membranes. They bind to the GABA receptors and reduce the flow of Cl – ions. Typical symptoms include convulsions. Organophosphates Also called: organic esters of phosphorus acid.Such as bromophos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, fenitrothion, malathion, parathion and phorate. The same basic constituents are combined with many additional chemicals to give a wide range of products with very different properties. Organophosphates were developed during the second world war and have two main uses: as insecticides and as nerve gases (chemical warfare agents). They are mostly liquids, liphophilic, with some volatility and a few a re solids. Generally, they are less stable and more readily broken down than organochlorines and are relatively short-lived in the environment, hence most of their hazard is associated with short-term (acute) toxicity.The water solubility of the various organophosphate compounds is very variable and they are prepared in numerous formulations: as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying and to control ectoparasites of farm animals (particularly sheep dips) and sometimes internal parasites (such as ox warble fly); as seed dressings and as granular formulations particularly used for the most toxic organophosphates (e. g. disyston and phorate) as the active ingredient is effectively ‘locked up' in the granule and is safer to handle and only slowly released into the environment. Organophosphates are also used to control vertebrate pests such as Quelea in Africa. Action: like organochlorines, organophosphates also act as a neurotoxin. They combine with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and prevent conduction of nerve impulses at junctions in the nervous system where acetylcholine is the natural transmitter.As a result, acetylcholine builds up in the nerve synapse and eventually leads to synaptic block when the acetylcholine can no longer relay signals across the synapse. In neuro-muscle junctions this leads to tetanus, the muscle is in a fixed state, unable to contract or relax in response to nerve stimulation. Carbamates e. g. aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methiocarb, methomyl, pirimicarb and propoxur Carbamates are a more recent development than organochlorines or organophosphates, they are all derivatives of carbamic acid. The basic carbamate group is combined with different chemicals to produce insecticides with a wide range of properties (in particular they vary greatly in their water solubility) and actions.Carbamates are not only used as insecticides but also molluscicides and nematicides. Carbamates are also used as herbicides and fungicides but these ha ve a different mode of action and are described elsewhere. Carbamates are mainly used to control insect pests in agriculture and horticulture, they have abroad spectrum of activity and usually act by contact or stomach action although a few possess systemic activity (aldicarb, carbofuran). Action: basically the same as organophosphates, inhibiting the action of acetylcholine at the nerve synapses. Doses of carbamates are not accumulative and carbamate poisoning is more easy to reverse than that caused by organophosphates.They are generally regarded as representing a short-term hazard. Pyrethroids Such as cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin. Pyrethrin insecticides were developed from naturally occurring chemicals found in the flower heads of Chrysanthenum sp. and these provided the model for the production of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Pyrethroids are generally more stables than natural pyrethrins. The development of pyrethroids can be traced over 4 main phases (Ware 1991). The first generation allethrin was a synthetic duplicate of a natural pyrethrum, cinerin I. The second generation included bioallethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin and bioresmethrin.These were marginally more effective than natural pyrethrums but were neither effective enough nor photostable enough to be used extensively in agriculture. However, they are still used in pest control formulations for the home. The third generation of pyrethroids included fenvalerate and permethrin which were stable in sunlight and only slightly volatile and could be used successfully in agriculture. Finally, the fourth and current generation of pyrethroids can be used at much lower concentrations (one-fifth to one-tenth) that those in generation 3 and are all photostable. Overall, most pyrethroids are not sufficiently soluble in water to be used a systemic insecticides. They are mainly formulated as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying.They control a wide range of agricultural a nd horticultural insect pests and are used extensively to control insect vectors of disease (e. g. tsetse fly in Africa) Action: pyrethroids are generally solids with very low water solubility and they act as neruotoxins in a very similar way to DDT. They are readily biodegradable but can bind to particles in soils and sediments and can be persistent in these locations. They are particularly toxic to insects as opposed to mammals and birds and the main environmental concerns are over their effects on fish and non-target invertebrates. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Action |Notes | |AMIDINES | | | | |   |amitraz |   |also ACARICIDE | |BOTANICAL | | | | |   |azadirachtin |insect growth regulator |extracted from Neem | |   |nicotine |contact, non-persistent general |extracted from tobacco | | | |purpose, | | |   |pyrethrin |contact, non-persistent |extracted from Pyrethrum | |   |rotenone |contact |extracted from Derris and Lonchocarpus | |CARBAMATES | | | |   |aldicarb |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |bendiocarb |contact & ingested |   | |   |carbaryl |contact |also WORM KILLER, FRUIT THINNER | |   |carbofuran |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |methiocarb |stomach acting |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |   |methomyl |fly bait |   | |   |pirimicarb |contact & fumigant aphids only |   | |   |propoxur |fumigant, maimainly in |   | | | |glasshouses | | |   |thiocarb |pelleted bait |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |ORGANOCHLORINES | | | | |diphenyl aliphatic derivatives |DDT |   |   | |   |rhothane (DDD) |   |   | |benzene derivatives |lindane ? amma HCH |contact, ingested & fumigant |   | |cyclodiene derivatives |aldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |dieldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |endosulfan |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |ORGANOPHOSPHATES | | | | |aliphatic derivatives |dichlorvos |contact , fumigant    | |   |dimethoate |contact, systemic |also ACARICIDE | |   |disulfoton |systemic, granules |   | |   |malathion |contact |also ACARICIDE | |   |phorate |systemic |   | |phenyl derivatives |fenitrothion |contact, broad spectrum |   | |   |parathion |   |   | |heterocyclic derivatives |chlorpyrifos |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |   |diazinon |contact |   | |ORGANOTINS | | | | |   |fenbutatin-oxide |   |ONLY ACARICIDE | |PYRETHROIDS | | | | |generation 1 |allethrin |   |   | |generation 2 |bioresmethrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |phenothrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |resmethrin |contact |   | |   |tetramethrin |contact |   | |generation 3 |fenvalerate |contact |   | |   |permethrin |contact & ingested, broad |   | | | spectrum | | |generation 4 |bifenthrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |cypermethrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |cyfluthrin |   |   | |   |fenpropathrin |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Herbicides [pic] It is really only in the last 50 years that use of chemical weedkillers or herbicides has become widespread. Prior to this, the control of weeds in crops was carried out largely by manual weeding, crop rotation, ploughing and various ways of stopping weed seeds being dispersed in crop seed. Today, the heavy use of herbicides is confined to those countries that practice highly intensive, mechanised farming.In 1971 it was estimated that more energy was expended on weeding crops than on any other single human task (Brain 1971 ). Herbicides are also used extensively in non-crop and amenity situations such as industrial sites, roadsides, ditch banks, recreational areas etc. Herbicides can be classified in a number of different ways. The main classification used is often according to chemical class but they can also be classified according to their selectivity, the way th at they affect the plant, the timing of application and the area covered by an application. Herbicides are classed as selective if they kill some plant species but not others, for instance they may kill the weeds but not the crop and as non-selective if they kill all vegetation.Herbicides may be intrinsically selective in that they are active against some species of weed but not others but they may also be used selectively, that is in such a way that they only come into contact with the weeds and not the crop. There are two main ways in which herbicides affect the plants they are applied to: contact herbicides kill parts of the plant that they come into contact with. These are generally used against annual weeds and if they are to be effective need complete coverage of the target weed with the chemical. Systemic or translocated herbicides are absorbed either by the roots or foliage of the plant and then move within the plants system to areas remote from the site of application.Trans located herbicides tend to be slower acting than contact ones and while they can be used against annual weeds they are more commonly aimed at perennial weeds. With translocated herbicides a uniform, although not necessarily complete, coverage of the target weeds is necessary. Finally, herbicides can be classified according to the timing of application in relation to the crop they are being used in. Pre-plant, or pre-sowing herbicides must be applied to an area before the crop is planted. Pre-emergence herbicides are applied before the crop has emerged, this may allow an added level of selectivity as a herbicide can be applied to growing weeds while the crop itself is still protected by the oil. Finally, post-emergence herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged from the soil.Again, a level of selectivity may be introduced by applying a germination inhibitor to prevent further germination of weed seeds – after the crop itself has germinated. Phenoxy Herbicides e. g. 2,4- D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T All derivatives of phenoxyalkane carboxylic acids that act as plant growth regulator herbicides. Phenoxy herbicides were the first safe, selective herbicides discovered and they are still used in huge quantities. They act by simulating the action of natural hormones and produce uncoordinated plant growth. Their action is selective as they are toxic to dicotyledonous but not monocotyledonous plants. Hence they can be used to control ‘dicot' weeds (broad leaved weeds) in ‘monocot' crops (e. g. cereals, grass). Their physical properties vary greatly according to formulation.For instance, as alkali salts they are highly water soluble (can be formulated as aqueous solutions) whereas when as simple esters they have low water solubility and are lipophilic (generally formulated as emulsifiable concentrates). The main hazard they present is mainly posed by unwanted spray drift but they have also sometimes been contaminated with the highly toxic compound TCDD (or dioxin). Other related compounds, also with plant growth regulating properties include phenoxypropionic acids (e. g. CMPP) and phenoxybutyric acids (e. g. 2,4DB). Table 3: Classification of Herbicides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Uptake/action |Persistence |Timing/site of |Other uses | | | | | |application | | |ACETANILIDES | | | | | | |   |alachlor |via roots, |residual |pre/post-emergence |   | | | |translocated | | | | |AMIDES or substituted amides | | | | | | |   |napropamide |   |   |pre-emergence |   | |   |propachlor |   |   |pre-emergence | |BENZOICS or arylaliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dicamba |translocated |   |soil/foliar |   | |BENZONITRILES or substituted nitriles| | | | | | |   |dichlobenil |   |residual |soil |   | |DIAZINONES | | | | | | |   |bentazone |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |BIPYRIDYLIUMS | | | | | | |   |diquat |contact |non-residual |f oliar |pre-harvest, CROP | | | | | | |DESICCANT | |   |paraquat |contact |non-residual |   |   | |CARBAMATES or carbanilates | | | | | | |   |asulam |translocated |   |foliar |   | |   |chlorpropham |   |residual |soiltubers |POTATO SPROUT SUPPRESSANT| |   |phenmedipham |contact |   |foliar |   | |CHLOROALKANOIC ACIDS or chlorinated | | | | | | |aliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dalapon |   |persistent |soil? | |DINITROANILINES or nitroanilines | | | | | | |   |pendimethalin |   |residual |pre-emergence, soil|   | |   |trifluralin |   |   |soil-incorporated |   | |HBNs | | | | | | |   |bromoxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |   |ioxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |IMIDAZOLINONES or imidazoles | | | | | | |   |imazapyr |translocated |residual |foliar, soil |   | |   |imazaquin |   |   |   |   | |OXIMES or cyclohexenones | | | | | | |   |cycloxydim |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |setho xydim |   |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYACETIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPA |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYBUTYRIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPB |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYPROPRIONIC ACIDS | | | | | |   |diclofop-methyl |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fenoxaprop-P-ethyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fluazifop-P-butyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |mecoprop |translocated |   |   |   | |   |mecoprop-P |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHOSPONIC ACIDS or phosphona amino | | | | | | |acids or phosphates | | | | | | |   |glufosinate-ammonium |contact |non-residual |foliar |   | |   |glyphosate |translocated |non-residual |foliar |   | |PICOLINIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |picloram |translocated |persistent |foliar, soil |   | |PYRIDINOXY ACIDS | | | | | | |   |fluroxypur |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |triclopyr |   |   |foliar |   | |QUATER NARY AMMONIUM | | | | | | |   |difenzoquat |   |   |post-emergence |   | |SULFONYLUREAS | | | | | |   |metsulfuron-methyl |contact |residual |post-emergence |   | |   |triasulfuron |   |   |post-emergence |   | |THIOCARBAMATES | | | | | | |   |tri-allate |   |   |soil-acting, |   | | | | | |pre-emergence | | |TRIAZINES | | | | | | |   |atrazine |   |residual |pre/post emergence |   | |   |cyanazine |contact |residual |pre-emergence |   | |   |metribuzin |contact |residual |pre-/post-emergence|   | |   |simazine |root uptake |   |soil

Monday, July 29, 2019

Critically evaluate the need for risk management in the event industry Essay

Critically evaluate the need for risk management in the event industry - Essay Example Risk management, as it relates to the event administration, may include action items such as fire evacuation procedures or it may be a minor problem from rowdy guests. Risk management, basically seeks to minimize the prospect of money or other forms of finance that can be utilized ineffectively or abused. It increases the profit margin for the company, by making sure that all resources are utilized safely, logically, and efficiently. Though, the actual process of risk management varies from company to company but in general, it requires support of owners, together with the management team, in order to filter the overall process and attain the lowest degree of risk possible. (What is risk management, 2003) As risk management is an integral part of any kind of business, it is also an essential component and a specific prerequisite for successful  event management. It combines many management disciplines, such as change management, knowledge management, strategy and leadership. Risk management can be considered as an informal decision making course that seeks to generate certainty from uncertainty.   The importance of risk management in the event industry has developed with the growing complexity and specialisation of service supply. Though, it does not prevent snow conditions from forcing event managers to cancel a festive marquee event, but not understanding and effective execution of useful risk management strategies can result in disastrous situations. Risk management, without any doubt, is significant part of the planning process. Analysing the risk, allows a firm to recognize the degree to which potential risks might impact the events. Risks can be measured in accordance to their possibility or likelihood of happening and they can also be considered in terms of the impacts of the risk or its consequences. Examining a risk and preparing risk matrices enable the managers to

Sunday, July 28, 2019

The Effects of Social Media in Today's Society Research Paper

The Effects of Social Media in Today's Society - Research Paper Example Anyone with an internet connection can access social networking sites. Since 1975, when the first type of social networking was introduced in the form of Hotmail, social media has come a long way. It has been observed that social networking sites like Facebook and Orkut lead to time wastage, but their benefits cannot be completely ignored. This research paper aims to measure the positive and negative effects of social media on society. Who do social media reach and how can it influence people’s lives? Social media is accessible to anyone who has a simple internet connection at home, office or anywhere in his or her environment. It is reachable to people from all walks of life, from students to business professionals. Websites like MySpace and Bebo help connect friends and family by bringing them under a single platform. Similarly, social networking sites like eBay bring buyers and sellers to exchange commodities between them. In short, social media helps B2B (business to busin ess), B2C (business to consumers) and C2C (consumers to consumers) interact, share information or files, and trade all under a single platform (Hendricks, 2012). Social media influences our life and daily routine in a great many ways depending how we utilize these networking tools. Time is of essence, and this is what it helps save. People find it much easier to go online and read articles and electronic books rather than newspapers or books that are physical in nature. In this fast moving world, people have adapted to the technological development made especially in the last decade. There has been a huge decline in book reading as people have turned to social media to meet their reading needs. Social media is changing the social habit of people. Though eBooks save time, they cause massive exertion and fatigue (Coupland, 2012, p. 103). People find it much easier to shop online than to physically go to shops and malls to make purchases. Social media is changing the way people shop no wadays. Products can be ordered with just a single click and can be delivered right at the doorsteps. Such facilities have made life very convenient for people. However, there are major drawbacks of shopping online. People have become more careful when making purchases. Buyers often complain that the products delivered to them do not match the seller’s description. In some cases, they were charged twice as much as the initial cost. Cybercrimes are on the increase, and many people have reported crimes against identity and credit card thefts (Close, 2012). How social media can change the global climate Social media can change the global climate by making people aware of the rise in global pollution and the damage it is inflicting to the ozone layer. Altogether, about 300 million people use various types of social media and upload around 220,000 videos on YouTube on a diurnal basis. Such is the power of social media, and if these people can be reached with an effective message, then the results could be very successful. Efforts are being made with a simple plan in mind. Most charitable and non-governmental organizations have joined hands for a peaceful revolution against massive pollution. The main idea is to create a community on social networking websites and blogs and try to get as many likes as possible. Frequently posting articles helps educate the readers about the dire consequences of pollution and how the planet can be saved. These articles are read and then shared by readers with their friends and

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Criminological Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Criminological Theory - Essay Example The biological perspectives on criminality holds that criminal behavior is caused by physiological factors that are rooted in an individual , the Sociological Development theory provides an integrated approach on the cause of crime in society as an interaction between an individuals and the societies social structures and the Psychological perspective on crime views deviancy and deviant behavior as the product of dysfunctional personalities in an individual. I have utilized the strain theory by Robert Merton as an example of sociological perspective on crime, the Somatotype theory by William Sheldon for the case of biological perspective and the Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud as an example to Psychological perspective on crime. All this theories will seek to exemplify what cause crime and deviancy in society. This paper will look into various theory of crime in the society that have been put forward to explain causes of crime and deviant behavior and provide an example for each category presented .The theories that seek to explain crime and causes of criminal behavior in society are categorized in biological, sociological or psychological theories of crime. Sociological theories of crime are categorized into four groups namely, the social process theory, the rational theory, the social conflict theory and the social structure theory. The four theories are further categorized as social disorganization theory and the strain theory. The social disorganization theories focus on conditions prevailing in urban centers that influence crime. This theory presupposes that high unemployment, low income levels, large number of single parent households and high college drop outs contributes to crime. The strain theories on the other hand stresses that crime is caused by the existence of conflict between the goals and the legal means that

Labeling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Labeling - Research Paper Example While labeling theory is not as popular as it once was, it has not been completely discredited as a way to understand how social processes lead to deviant behavior. Labeling Theory & Who Labels Whom? Labeling theory argues that just observing the delinquent, or its characteristics, will not provide a whole image of deviance or crime. A complete picture has to include community/society responses to such incidents (Traub and Little 291). Labeling theory is used as a way to understand deviant behavior, including crime, as a consequence of social differentiation processes in which some of society's members are singled out, identified, and defined as deviant, while others are not (Traub and Little 289-295). The causal proposition of labeling theory is that the act of treating a person as a deviant, in itself, can lead to deviant behavior on the part of that person. The punishment of deviant behavior often has an ironic effect: efforts at social control lead to decreased control (Schur 10) . Social definitions of deviance and their accompanying social sanctions somehow pressure labeled individuals into further deviant behaviors. Loosely speaking, a "label," or, a definition of a person as deviant, may be thought of as an independent variable, or, a cause of deviant behavior (Akers 121). The process by which a person is labeled as deviant may be summarized as follows. First, an act is deemed as deviant. Second, the person committing the act is deemed as deviant. And third, a moral condemnation is placed upon this person (Traub and Little 289). According to labeling theory, then, reactions to criminal behavior should be considered at least as important as the behavior itself, if not more. Labeling theory took a lesson from Kai Erikson (p. 11), who argued that the "social audience," not the individual, is the critical variable in studying deviance because it is the audience who decides which acts, or types of acts, deserve the deviant label. In their coverage of labeling theory, Traub and Little (p. 290) wrote "it is the definition of an individual's behavior as deviant, rather than the behavior itself, that can cause a marked change in status which transforms a person's conception of self and initiates the process of locking that person into a 'deviant career'." Thus, it is the community and authority figures such as the police, judges, teachers, parents, and psychiatrists, who label persons as "criminal," "delinquent," "bad kid," "mentally ill," "poor student," and so on. Consequences of Labeling Labeling theory argues that public deviant labeling can have a profound impact on the ability of the labeled person to participate in mainstream society. In one sense, this is an all-too-obvious observation. Societal sanctions have obnoxious effects for the offender of social norms. This assumption is central to the classic school in criminology, namely the deterrence approach to crime and punishment (Gennaro 196). This perspective argues that being caug ht and punished for a crime should decrease one's future rate of offending. Punished individuals should tend to desist from crime to avoid the pain of punishment in the future. However, in direct contrast to this traditional view, labeling theory points out that the ability of the individual to engage in rational decision-making is not the only relevant factor in determining the consequences of punishment. Labeling theory looks beyond individual-level processes and

Friday, July 26, 2019

Answe qustions in ethics policy adminstration Essay - 1

Answe qustions in ethics policy adminstration - Essay Example I am also required to ensure that they are informed of all the correct procedures and about any misappropriation of official duties My responsibilities to my subordinates includes dissemination of information regarding work paradigm, ethical considerations, rules and regulations and expected outcome. They are expected to follow the defined processes and ensure that work is finished within the deadline. I have huge responsibilities to the public who help to pay our salaries. My responsibilities are to ensure public disclosure of our financial accounts and promote transparency in our work so that public knows how the work is accomplished in different areas of public interests. Most importantly, public is entitled to be aware of its own duties and therefore it is also important to create awareness amongst the people as to how they can become more active proactive participants in developmental works and socially relevant issues. (words:

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Health, Disability and Long Term Care Insurance Essay

Health, Disability and Long Term Care Insurance - Essay Example This crisis is a fact and statistics are good enough to prove its validity. USA spends twice more on its annual healthcare then does 19 of the developed countries in North America and Europe. The percentage of GDP allotted to health seems to be at a rise since 1997 when it reached to 15.7% in the year 2005, and as projected by the agencies of Medicare and Mediaid this percentage would further increase in the next 10 years to a figure of almost 17.5% of the GDP. Yet 15.6% of the American population is still uninsured. (services, april,2005) For a country that has the highest expenditure rates on healthcare, it is quite shocking that the public gets to face the crisis of high rising prices for healthcare. The two major problems faced by the healthcare system of USA include rapid increase in the expenditures made on health and disabilities and high costs for administration of health care issues which account for at least 26% of the total money in healthcare. The reasons for the rising c osts are many including the dependence on the high costs of new medical technologies, drugs and tests, the rising population of the elderly, the rising frequencies of road traffic accidence and criminal activities requiring medical attention, intensive work hours and rising pays of health care professionals and doctors, high awareness of medical problems requiring immediate and most of the times unnecessary medical attention, untoward issues like fraud and issues causing waste of administrative money, the internal situation and inflation rates of the health care system and many more reasons. TYPES OF MEDICAL COVERAGE Broadly speaking, health insurance can be of two types. First is the group health insurance in which an employee and his immediate family are covered by an insurance company that is either partially or mostly paid by the employer. This type of insurance comprises as high as 90% of the total insurance issued by the insurance companies. (DeNavas-Walt, 2008) Sometimes this type of insurance may not provide the necessary protection that an individual requires; in that case an additional aid with the help of individual insurance can be purchased. Second type is the individual insurance plan. This type of plan, as the name suggests, is individually tailored to anyone’s needs. This type of insurance is usually acquired when the group insurance is not enough or requires certain addition. In that case one can choose their own preference of insurance company and select as much coverage as they require. This means an extensive browsing of the options available in the market as the mark ups and premiums on different plans by different companies vary to a great extent. The group and individual insurance plans provide different types of coverage. These policies further include the following types of coverage: 1) MAJOR MEDICAL EXPENSE INSURANCE Major medical expense insurance is a type of insurance which covers the excess medical expenses incurred due to sudden accidents, injuries or severe illnesses. It is usually in relation to the basic individual or group insurance that would provide the baseline insurance for the regular medical expenses. This type of insurance only covers the excess and high bills that are often faced after an accidental situation or a severe illness. Usually the amount that can be paid through this type of insurance is quite high which requires the premium to be covered by the individual through various ways.

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Facebook and Human Resource Management Research Paper - 1

Facebook and Human Resource Management - Research Paper Example It is important to highlight that Facebook is a social networking website. Simply put, it is an online or digital community wherein its users can socialize virtually: meet, interact, share photos, videos, news, among other information. It is a network of close to a billion users, connecting friends, families, strangers, coworkers, and so forth, regardless of location and time. The framework is simple and appealing: Profile pages are created so that individuals can post and share information about themselves. Gunter (2010) explained that such architecture creates an environment that encourages members to log in regularly in order to keep track of what friends and colleagues are doing, sharing their own activities, interact about interests and hobbies, send messages, and join groups and networks, among other things (p. 1). These characteristics and capabilities underscore why Facebook can impact human resources management. They reveal how majority of the workforce logs in to the websit e daily. In the United States, there are close to 100 million Facebook users. A Pew Research Center study found that of those who use social networking sites, 92 percent use Facebook, followed by MySpace with a meager 29 percent (Hampton et al., 2011). The bulk of Facebook users are dominated by 18-44 year olds, able-bodied people that constitute the workforce or at least could qualify as workers (Statista, 2012). These user demographics access their Facebook account at least a month through different devices such as computers and mobile phones.

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Phase 3 DB Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Phase 3 DB - Assignment Example This report includes the notes to the financial statement of the company and the comparative analysis of the new business expanse intent of the Apex Inc. It also discusses the profitable outcomes for the shareholders and the bondholders. Introduction Apex Printing Inc. is the privatized United States printing company which cater the printing of research papers, newspaper inserts, journals and magazines, periodicals and the advertisements that incorporate Sunday and weekly circulations of metropolitan newspapers. Apex Inc., headed by the CEO John Mathews generates a revenue of 450 million US $ per annum based on three main product lines namely the periodicals, inserts and the advertisements. This company holds long contractual relationships with several U.S retailers for the vast production on a large scale. Recently in a meeting with the CEO and Vice President of the Sales Administration James Simeon, an initiative was put forward in the intent of the further expanse of the product l ine of Apex Inc. and to carry out productions in a different streamline: food packaging and following a different preplanned strategy. The meeting was soon followed by another meeting with the CEO and the VP of Production and Supply Chain, Luke Stewart. ... Mathews. However Mr. Mathews pointed out that Mr. Stewart view on long term profit was only possible if the project has been carried out successfully and with the striving attitude to include perfection in it. To discuss further on the this proposal I hereby, the VP finance am required to submit an initiative report to the CFO of the incorporation in this matter highlighting the finance statement and the discussion of the project’s details and the end result and henceforth making a satisfactory attempt to persuade the shareholders and the bondholders for the gain of their valuable investment in this project. Method: The current profit-loss status of the Apex Inc. is not vary much commendable however one also refrain from grading it as below average. But, owing to the present circumstances and the new inceptive of the expanse of the business approved by the CEO, I am here to give you a brief description of the present state of the company and the cost to implement the newer pro ject in pursuit of stabilizing the incorporation’s profits. Given here are the formulas for the calculation of the net present value (NPV) and the internal rate of return (IRR) of the expanse of Apex Inc. followed by the cost description of the food packaging project. When cash inflows are even (NPV): NPV = R ? 1 ? (1 + i)-n ? Initial Investment i In the above formula, R  is the net cash inflow expected to be received each period; i  is the required rate of return per period; n  are the number of periods during which the project is expected to operate and generate cash inflows. When cash inflows are uneven: NPV = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... ? Initial Investment (1 + i)1 (1 + i)2 (1 + i)3 Where, i  is the target rate of return per period; R1  is the net cash inflow during the first